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Grammar
& Editing Help
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Mechanics: Capitalization, Italics,
Punctuation, Spelling
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Capitalization, part 1 Use a capital
letter at the beginning of a sentence, line of poetry, or line in a bullet
list. Don’t use a capital letter to begin a
word that is not at the beginning of a sentence (unless it is a proper name or the title of a
source). Links:
Capitalization, part 2 Capitalization in a
title
The rule for the
capitalization of titles (of books, papers, and other creative works) is: * Capitalize the first
and last words of the title. * Capitalize the first
and last words of the subtitle. * Capitalize all other
words except for prepositions, articles, and conjunctions.
Further
Reading: In Eye on Editing 2,
see page 127 Capitalization,
part 3 Capitalization rules
for proper names
Links: Proper
nouns and common nouns
Further
Reading: In Eye on Editing 2,
see page 127
Italics, part 1 Use italics or
underlining to set off words that are referred to as words. Example: When I teach the study of framing at Berkeley, in Cognitive
Science 101, the first thing I do is I give my students an exercise. The
exercise is: Don't think of an elephant! Whatever you do, do not think of an
elephant. I've never found a student who is able to do this. Every
word, like elephant, evokes a frame, which can be an
image or other kinds of knowledge: Elephants are large, have floppy ears and
a trunk, are associated with circuses, and so on. The word is defined
relative to that frame. When we negate a frame, we evoke the frame. [1]
Use italics or underlining
for words that are in contrast. This is sometimes what is meant when you hear
the word “emphasis.”
Example: Not only can
you begin a sentence with a conjunction, in many cases you must do so. Links: Further
Reading: In Eye on Editing 2,
see page 127
Use italics or
underlining for titles of books, journals, and other large works.
Generally,
we italicize the titles of things that can stand by themselves. Thus we
differentiate between the titles of novels and journals, say, and the titles
of poems, short stories, articles, and episodes (for television shows). The
titles of these shorter pieces would be surrounded with double quotation
marks. [2] Example: It has been ten years since the publication of Charles Murray and
Richard Herrnstein’s highly controversial The Bell Curve. Links: Further
Reading: In Eye on Editing 2,
see page 127
Italics, part 4 Use italics or
underlining for foreign words.
Example: From the open
door of the train I had seen the vast jhuggis that spread out from the
cities: jerry-built shacks of hammered-flat
oil barrels, tattered plastic tarps, savaged mud-bricks, and liberated
billboards. [3] Links: Further
Reading: In Eye on Editing 2,
see page 127
Punctuation, part 1 Compound
Sentences Use
a comma or a semicolon in the middle of a
compound sentence with a coordinating conjunction
(and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet): Pattern: Independent clause [ , ] coordinating
conjunction independent clause
[ . ] Example: Doctors
are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, but
they don't know the reasons for it. [4] Use
a semicolon or a dash in the middle of a compound
sentence without a coordinating conjunction. Don’t use a comma. Pattern: Independent clause [ ; ] independent
clause [ . ] Example: Doctors
are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; they are unsure of
its cause. [5] Use
a semicolon or a dash in the middle of a compound
sentence with a conjunctive adverb (therefore,
moreover, thus, consequently, however, also). Don’t use a comma. Pattern: Independent clause [ ; ] conjunctive
adverb [ , ] independent clause
[ . ] Example: Doctors
are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; therefore,
they have called for more research into its causes. [6] Links:
Punctuation, part 2 Colon
Links: Further
Reading: In Eye on Editing 2,
see page 126
Punctuation, part 3 Comma splice
A comma splice
consists of clauses that are incorrectly combined.
Links: Run-ons
- Comma Splices - Fused Sentences Further
Reading: In Eye on Editing 2,
see page 126 In Writing Clearly:
An Editing Guide (2nd edition), see page 139-140
Punctuation, part 4 Use commas to set
off nonrestrictive (nonessential) clauses/phrases.
Pattern: First part of an independent clause [ , ] non-essential
clause or phrase [ , ] rest of the independent clause [ . ]
Example: Many
doctors, including both pediatricians and family practice physicians,
are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma.
A
non-essential clause or phrase is one that can be removed without changing
the meaning of the sentence or making it ungrammatical. In other words, the
non-essential clause or phrase gives additional information, but the sentence
can stand alone without it. Don’t use commas with nonrestrictive
(essential) clauses/phrases.
Pattern: First part of an independent clause [ no comma ] essential
clause or phrase [ no comma ] rest of
the independent clause [ . ] Example: Many doctors who are concerned about the rising death rate
from asthma have
called for more research into its causes. An
essential clause or phrase is one that cannot be removed without changing the
overall meaning of the sentence. [8]
Further
Reading: In Eye on Editing 2,
see page 126 In Read, Write, Edit:
Grammar for College Writers, see page 108-109 Links: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dash#Em_dash
At the end of a sentence, use a period, a
question mark, or an exclamation point. Never leave a space to the left of a period,
question mark, or exclamation point. Only use one mark of end punctuation per
sentence. Do not use a period at the end of a title. If the sentence is a quotation, or ends with a
quotation, put the closing quotation mark after a period. Incorrect: Rauch argues that the benefits of genetic
engineering are “too large to ignore”. Correct: Rauch argues that the benefits of genetic engineering
are “too large to ignore.” A question mark or exclamation point that was
part of the original quotation also goes to the left of the closing quotation
mark; however, these two types of end punctuation can go to the right of a
quote if that punctuation was not part of the quoted passage. Incorrect: Is it possible, as Rauch says, that genetically
modified organisms could “reduce the amount of chemicals farmers have to
spray on their fields?” Correct: Is it possible, as Rauch says, that genetically
modified organisms could “reduce the amount of chemicals farmers have to
spray on their fields”? Incorrect: J. Bottum asks, “when did you last go to a dinner
party at which the stereo didn’t rumble through the evening”? Correct: J. Bottum asks, “when did you last go to a dinner
party at which the stereo didn’t rumble through the evening?” Links: Further
Reading: In Eye on Editing 2,
see page 126 A
fragment is a passage that is punctuated as a sentence—it begins with
a capital letter, and ends with a period—but is grammatically
incomplete. It may be a phrase,
lacking both subject and verb; or it may be a dependent clause, beginning
with a subordinating conjunction like because or while. Incorrect: In fact, technology merely constitutes increased
power. Which produces changes that can be either for the better
or for the worse. Correct: In fact, technology merely constitutes increased power. This
produces changes that can be either for the better or for the worse. Correct: In fact, technology merely constitutes increased power, which produces
changes that can be either for the better or for the worse. [9] Inexperienced
writers may use fragments unintentionally; for these writers it is important
to learn to identify fragments and resolve them. Experienced writers sometimes use fragments intentionally,
especially in mass-media or general-audience writing. Such intentional fragments tend to draw
attention to the idea marking it as important, and they tend to occur at the
end of a paragraph, chapter, or essay. Example of an
intentional fragment: “We have uncovered
wonders undreamt by our ancestors who first speculated on the nature of those
wandering lights in the night sky. We
have probed the origins of our planet and ourselves. By discovering what else is possible, by
coming face to face with alternative fates of worlds more or less like our
own, we have begun to better understand the earth. Every one of these worlds is lonely and instructive. But, so far as we know, they are also,
every one of them, desolate and barren.
Out there, there are no “better places.” So far, at least.” [10] Further
Reading: In Eye on Editing 2,
see page 45-53 In Writing Clearly:
An Editing Guide (2nd edition),
see page 139-140 In Read, Write, Edit:
Grammar for College Writers, see 152 Links: Further
Reading: In Eye on Editing 2,
see page 126 Links: Further
Reading: In Eye on Editing 2,
see page 136-138 In Read, Write, Edit:
Grammar for College Writers, see page 177 Further
Reading: In Eye on Editing 2,
see page 45-53 In Read, Write, Edit:
Grammar for College Writers, see page 156 Punctuation,
part 11 Links: Run-ons
- Comma Splices - Fused Sentences Further
Reading: In Eye on Editing 2,
see page 45-53 In Writing Clearly:
An Editing Guide (2nd edition), see page 139-140 In Read, Write, Edit:
Grammar for College Writers, see page 152 Use a comma after
an introductory phrase or transitional expression. Correct: Still, I hereby hazard a prediction. In ten years or less, most American environmentalists will regard
genetic modification as one of their most powerful tools. If properly
developed, disseminated, and used, genetically modified crops might
well be the best hope the planet has got. [11] Links: When the subject
is immediately followed by its predicate, a comma is normally not
used. Incorrect: Creativity, is a central source of meaning in our
lives. Correct: Creativity is a central source of meaning in our
lives. [12] Links: Links: Links: Further
Reading: In Writing Clearly: An Editing Guide (2nd edition), see page
229 Spelling,
part 3 Homonyms are words that sound
alike (but are spelled differently). Incorrect: Most of us living in large American cities are encountering
increased commuting delays, because the number of people and hence of cars
is increasing faster then the number of freeway lanes. Correct: Most of us living in large American cities are encountering
increased commuting delays, because the number of people and hence of cars
is increasing faster than the number of freeway lanes. Links: Spelling,
part 4 Links: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typo
Links: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interword_separation
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